Category: Scientific Info

Abstract

The central nervous system has the second highest concentration of lipids after adipose tissue. Long chain fatty acids, particularly arachidonic acid and docosahexaenoic acid, are integral components of neural membrane phospholipids. Alterations in neural membrane phospholipid components cannot only influence crucial intracellular and intercellular signaling but also alter many membrane physical properties such as fluidity, phase transition temperature, bilayer thickness, and lateral domains. A deficiency of docosahexaenoic acid markedly affects neurotransmission, membrane-bound https://hotcanadianpharmacy.com/ enzyme and ion channel activities, gene expression, intensity of inflammation, and immunity and synaptic plasticity. Docosahexaenoic acid deficiency is associated with normal aging, Alzheimer disease, hyperactivity, schizophrenia, and peroxisomal disorders. Although the molecular mechanism of docosahexaenoic acid involvement in the disorders remains unknown, the supplementation of docosahexaenoic acid in the diet restores gene expression and modulates neurotransmission. Also, improvements are seen in signal transduction processes associated with behavioral deficits, learning activity, peroxisomal disorders, and psychotic changes in schizophrenia, depression, hyperactivity, stroke, and Alzheimer disease.

Abstract

DHA and AA, which are components of breast milk but not infant formulas marketed in the United States and some other countries, are important components of the brain, and DHA is a major component of the retina. Also, many studies have demonstrated advantages of breastfeeding versus formula-feeding on subsequent cognitive and visual function; however, available data are insufficient to justify the conclusion that the presence of DHA and AA in breast milk is partially or soley responsible for the apparent advantages of breastfeeding.

On the other hand, many studies of DHA (and AA)-supplemented versus unsupplemented formulas have shown clear advantages of the supplemented formulas on visual acuity at 2 and 4 months of age or neurodevelopmental status at 12 to 18 months of age. Although one logically may assume that these early effects may have long-term effects, this assumption is not warranted by the available data. One of the major problems is the difficulty of assessing visual and cognitive function of infants. Scores on standard neurodevelopmental tests at 1 year of age, for example, are only weakly correlated with performance at school age (when more definitive assessments are possible), and little is known about the predictability of later visual function from behavioral or electrophysiologic assessments of visual function early in life. Even prematurely born infants can synthesize DHA and AA and other omega-3 and omega-6 LC-PUFAs from the dietary EFAs, LA and ALA.

Nonetheless, plasma, erythrocyte and brain lipid levels of DHA are lower in infants whose diets do not contain DHA. Whether more optimal intakes of ALA result in higher plasma and tissue levels of this FA is unclear. The breast-milk content of LC-PUFAs is not regulated by the mammary gland but, rather, reflects the concentrations of LC-PUFAs in maternal plasma lipids that, in turn, are dependent on maternal diet and, probably, maternal activities of the desaturases and elongases involved in converting dietary LA and ALA to LC-PUFAs. Read more about lucky 88 pokie. This occurrence suggests that some infants receive sufficient LC-PUFA to support normal rates of deposition, whereas others may not. Also, some infants probably can synthesize additional LC-PUFAs from the LA and ALA contents of human milk. Thus, depending on maternal diet and maternal and infant desaturase and elongase activities, some breastfed infants may receive less than adequate LC-PUFAs to support normal rates of deposition.

Clearly, the role of LC-PUFAs in infant development is not a simple issue. Also, no foolproof method exists to ensure an adequate but not excessive intake. Thus, because some evidence shows that dietary LC-PUFA (DHA, AA, or both) as components of breast milk or formula confers at least transient developmental benefits, supplementation of infant formulas with LC-PUFAs is supportable provided that the http://theshoalspharmacy.com supplements used are safe. The safety of all available supplements is unknown; however, some trials reveal few reasons for major concerns about the safety of single-cell oils, low-EPA fish oil, or egg-yolk phospholipid or triglyceride fractions.

Abstract

Although a rich source of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) that may confer multiple health benefits, some fish also contain methyl mercury (MeHg), which may harm the developing fetus. U.S. government recommendations for women of childbearing age are to modify consumption of high-MeHg fish to reduce MeHg exposure, while recommendations encourage fish consumption among the general population because of the nutritional benefits.

The Harvard Center for Risk Analysis convened an expert panel (see acknowledgements) to quantify the net impact of resulting hypothetical changes in fish consumption across the population. This paper estimates the impact of prenatal n-3 intake on cognitive development. Other papers quantify the negative impact of prenatal exposure to MeHg on cognitive development, and the extent to which fish consumption protects against coronary heart disease mortality and stroke in adults. This paper aggregates eight randomized controlled trials (RCTs) comparing cognitive development in controls and in children who had received n-3 PUFA supplementation (seven studies of formula supplementation and one study of maternal dietary supplementation).

Our analysis assigns study weights accounting for statistical precision, relevance of three endpoint domains (general intelligence, verbal https://www.bernardspharmacy.com ability, and motor skills) to prediction of IQ, and age at evaluation. The study estimates that increasing maternal docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) intake by 100 mg/day increases child IQ by 0.13 points. The paper notes that findings were inconsistent across the RCTs evaluated (although our findings were relatively robust to changes in the weighting scheme used). Also, for seven of the eight studies reviewed, effects are extrapolated from formula supplementation to maternal dietary intake.

DHA supplementation has consistently demonstrated better visual development of preterm infants DHA status is important for infant development, it has been recommended to include DHA in infant formulae at levels approximately 0.10% to 0.18% of energy.

Higher DHA intakes have been recently recommended for preterm infants, who have higher requirements regarding neurodevelopment.

Randomized clinical trial in which breast-feeding women received supplementation with 200 mg DHA per day or placebo during the first 4 months of lactation. Improved psychomotor development was observed at 2.5 years of age and enhanced sustained attention at the age of 5 years.

Preterm infants fed higher DHA were significantly (0.7 cm) longer at 18 months corrected age.

DHA treatment normalized the above oxidative stress makers and prevented the decrease in cell viability caused by the high glucose exposure.

DHA shows cytoprotective properties and is widely used as an antioxidant under various conditions.

DHA is typically present in the eye, protecting retina from oxidative damage and also preventing diabetes-related rod photoreceptor dysfunction. Notably, the content of DHA in both retina and RPE was decreased in diabetes. DHA seemed to exert its protective effects by different ways, including serving passively as part of cell membranes and impacting transcription of redox-sensitive genes.
Indeed, DHA inhibited NO-iNOS production and the transcription of other pro-inflammatory genes
The anti-inflammatory and antioxidative action of DHA seemed to occur through a mechanism that involves the activation of nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (Nrf-2) and the up-regulation of Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1)

The cytoprotective effects of HNE appeared to result from its potential anti-inflammatory and antioxidative properties, which might make DHA a promising agent for the intervention in diabetic retinopathy.

DHA has important free radical scavenging properties and protects against per oxidative damage of lipids and proteins in developing and adult brains, with attenuation of neuron loss and cognitive and locomotor deficits

DHA accretion relative brain weight is greatest during fetal development and early infancy, it is generally considered that this reflects a critical time during which deficiency of DHA may have long-term consequences for later brain function.

DHA is important for human brain development. The events in which DHA fulfills its essential roles, including neurotransmission, neurogenesis, and protection from oxidative stress are relevant throughout the lifespan and to maximizing cognitive potential in development and minimizing its loss with aging.
DHA enhanced neurite outgrowth of hippocampal and cortical neurons.

Neither brain nor body can synthesize DHA by itself and it must be obtained from diet Studies show that DHA affects blood-brain barrier functions and neuronal membrane fluidity; it also regulates neurotransmission systems such as serotonergic, dopaminergic, norepinephrinergic, and acetyl cholinergic systems.

DHA has a significant effect on neuronal membrane dynamics and therefore on transporter, receptor, and neurotransmitter functions.

Preterm infants are denied the full intrauterine supply of DHA available to term infants [31]; therefore, preterm infants depend on a diet that supplies all the DHA needed for growth and development.

The DINO Trial DHA found that supplementation for infants <33 weeks gestation with tuna oil capsules reduced the incidence of Bronchoplumonary dysplasia in boys and in all infants with a birth weight <1250 g; it also reduced the incidence of reported hay fever in boys at either 12 or 18 months

“Over the past 30 years a body of evidence from animal and clinical studies supports the general assertion that normal brain development requires optimal DHA levels. Rodent studies suggest that cortical DHA has neurotropic as well as neuroprotective properties in the developing and adult brain”
“DHA may play a role in microglia-mediated synaptic pruning, as well as myelin development and resilience”

“Preterm birth, which results in deficits in third trimester fetal cortical DHA accrual, is associated with enduring prefrontal cortical network connectivity deficits and a spectrum of neurocognitive impairments which may be mitigated by postnatal high-dose DHA supplementation”

“DHA supplementation increased cortical activity in prefrontal regions, and decreased activity in the temporal cortex and cerebellum, during performance of sustained attention task in healthy developing children”

“Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), a physiologically important omega-3 (𝜔-3) long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid (LC-PUFA), is a structural component for https://www.viagrageneric.org synaptosomal membrane, synaptic vesicles, and growth cones”.
“During embryonic and postnatal period, DHA plays an important role in the neural development”.

“DHA was proved to display good neuroprotective effect DHA rectifies the synaptogenesis impairment and long-term memory deficits in postnatal caused by multiple sevoflurane exposures”.

Most of the brain growth is completed by 5-6 years of age. At birth brain weight is 70% of an adult, 15% brain growth occurs during infancy and remaining brain growth is completed during preschool years.

During the third trimester of pregnancy, there is an avid accretion of DHA in the liver, brain, and retina of the fetus at a rate of 4.13g of EFA per week i.e. 0.59 g/day. Pregnancy leads to a progressive depletion of maternal plasma DHA, presumably due to the increased supply of this critical nutrient to the developing fetal nervous system.

After delivery maternal stores are replaced slowly or incompletely over a period of 5-6 months. There is evidence to suggest that depletion of maternal DHA reserves during pregnancy is an important correlate of postpartum depression.DHA is credited to reduce the levels of thromboxane (TXA2) and increase prostacyclin (PGI2) level leading to enhanced uteroplacental perfusion and oxygen delivery, vasodilatation and thinning of blood.

There is reduced risk of development of toxemia of pregnancy in mothers who received supplements of DHA. The follow-up studies have shown that infants born to mothers whose diet was supplemented with DHA, had higher mental processing scores and high degree of stereopsis and stereo acuity at 4 years of age.