Category: Scientific Info

“Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is the major polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) in the brain and a structural component of neuronal membranes. Changes in DHA content of neuronal membranes lead to functional changes in the activity of receptors and other proteins which might be associated with synaptic function. Accumulating evidence suggests the beneficial effects of dietary DHA supplementation on neurotransmission”

“DHA is a major structural component of gray matter neuronal membranes. At the subcellular level, the highest concentration of DHA is found in synaptic membranes followed by mitochondria and microsomes (Scott and Bazan, 1989)”.

“The developing brain or hippocampal neurons take up DHA and incorporates it into http://armodexperiment.com membrane phospholipids especially phosphatidyl ethanolamine, resulting in neurite outgrowth, synaptogenesis and neurogenesis”.

“Multiple mechanisms of action can be associated with the Neuroprotective effects of DHA, including anti-oxidant properties and activation of distinct cell signaling path.

LCPUFA supplementation improved performance on means-end problem solving at 9 months of age. Given that performance on means-end problem solving is correlated with later IQ and vocabulary, this implies that the cognitive benefits of DHA-supplementation might persist well beyond infancy.

LCPUFA-supplemented infants demonstrate a more mature state of attentional control in that they can disengage their attentional more readily from one component of the task, and move quickly to the next. LCPUFAs improve attention control by facilitating the development of the prefrontal cortex.

The neuronal membranes within the prefrontal cortex are particularly sensitive to both DHA deficiency and DHA supplementation.

“Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) promotes neurite development, synaptogenesis and expression of synapsins and glutamate receptors, which in turn leads to improved synaptic transmission”

“Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) metabolism to DEA is a key mechanism leading to enhanced synaptic function through promoted hippocampal neurodevelopment”

“The metabolism of DHA to DEA is a novel and significant mechanism for hippocampal neuronal development and function. DEA produced from DHA promotes neurite development, synaptogenesis and expression of synapsins and glutamate receptors, which in turn leads to improved synaptic transmission”.

“Since DEA is derived from DHA, compromised DEA-dependent hippocampal http://online-pharmacy.org/ development may be an underlying mechanism for the learning disability and memory deficit associated with neural DHA depletion due to dietary deficiencies of n−3 fatty acids”.

“Maternal supplementation with very-long-chain n-3 PUFAs during pregnancy and lactation improves the intelligence of children at 4 years of age. Perhaps adequate supply of very-long-chain PUFA during pregnancy is just as important as in the neonatal period”.

“In a multiple regression model, maternal intake of DHA during pregnancy was the only variable of statistical significance for the children’s mental processing scores at 4 years of age”.

“The maternal intake of DHA during pregnancy seems to be important for mental development measured at 4 years of age. Higher maternal intake of DHA results in higher maternal plasma levels and thereby increased the transfer of DHA to the fetus.31,37 In an observational study, it was recently reported that stereo acuity at age 3.5 years was enhanced among full-term infants whose mothers had a DHA-rich diet during pregnancy.38 Breastfeeding was also http://www.canadianpharmacy365.net associated with enhanced stereopsis, compared with children who had not been breastfed.38 In our study, at least 76 infants were breastfed at 3 months of age, thereby receiving AA as well as DHA via their mothers’ milk”.

Optimum fetal neurodevelopment is dependent on Specific nutrients derived solely from dietary sources, including docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), dietary DHA intake improves clinical outcomes and neuronal myelination.

Greater maternal intake of omega-3 fatty acids was associated with lower risk of suboptimum verbal IQ
in a non-linear dose-response curve that lower omega-3 fatty acid intake in pregnancy predict lower verbal IQ.Insufficient intakes of long chain omega-3 fatty acids during pregnancy include: intrauterine growth retardation, delayed or suboptimum depth perception, adverse neurodevelopmental measures, residual deficits in fine motor skills, speed of information processing in infants, and irreversible deficits in serotonin and dopamine release.

We noted that children of mothers who ate small amounts of seafood were more likely to have Suboptimum neurodevelopmental outcomes than children of mothers who ate more seafood than the recommended amounts.

“In infants, DHA is important for optimal visual and cognitive development. The usual intake of DHA among toddlers and children is low and some studies show improvements in cognition and behavior as the result of supplementation with polyunsaturated fatty acids including DHA”

“Studies of brain activity reported benefits of Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) supplementation and over half of the studies reported a favorable role for DHA or long chain omega-3 fatty acids in at least one area of http://getzonedup.com cognition or behavior. Studies also suggested an important role for DHA in school performance “
“Higher prenatal DHA status positively affected visual information processing and brain activity in later childhood; and, that current DHA intake was positively associated with brain activity during performance of a specific task requiring familiarity processing.”

“Infancy, childhood, and adolescence are times of rapid neuronal maturation, synaptogenesis, and gray matter expansion, all of which are associated with brain DHA accumulation

DHA synthesis from its fatty acid precursors is known to be inefficient, making dietary sources of preformed DHA important”

During the last trimester of gestation and for the first 18 months after birth, AA, and Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are deposited within the cerebral cortex at a rapid rate (Martinez et al., 1974; Clandinin et al., 1980). As noted above, this stage of human development is known as the brain growth spurt (Martinez and Mougan, 1998), when neuronal development is particularly vulnerable to nutritional insufficiencies (Nyaradi et al., 2013).

Numerous expert and government authorities worldwide agree that dietary Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) requirements are increased during pregnancy and lactation when a minimum of 200 mg of Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) per day is recommended (Van Elswyk and Kuratko, 2009).

The decline in breast milk Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) may plausibly be explained by dietary shifts overtime. Formula-fed infants may also be at risk of sub-optimal Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) supply during this period. Evidence that infant Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) supplementation conveys significant benefit on visual acuity is derived from a systematic review of 12 clinical studies from the Harvard School of Public Health (SanGiovannietal.,2000). San Giovanni et al.(2000) incorporated the results from both randomized and non-randomized studies of DHA supplemented formula and concluded that increased dietary Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) improved visual acuity in term infants at two and four months of age.

Preterm infants are especially vulnerable to Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) deficiency as they have not had access to maternal lipid stores for the normal period of gestation (Haggarty, 2002).

It has been identified that children born preterm have higher rates of learning disabilities, language impairment, attention deficits, hyperactivity, and reduced cognitive test scores compared to (gender- and age-matched) children born at term (Bhutta et al., 2002; Perricone and Morales, 2011).

It is possible that Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) deficiency during critical periods of brain growth and structural organization may render the brain vulnerable to neurological or neurodegenerative diseases later in life (Farquharson et al., 1995). The development of the brain’s architecture prenatally and during infancy lays down the foundation on which the structure of the adult brain is based. It is therefore possible that early modification of LC-PUFA levels will have long-term structural and functional consequences which may be too long-term and/or subtle to detect in healthy infants and children (McNamara and, 2006).

Premature infants are particularly vulnerable to nutritional deficiency because of their limited adipose tissue mass and immaturity in many metabolic and physiologic pathways at birth. In addition, the growth of dendritic arbors and peak formation of synapses, which are enriched in Docosahexaenoic acid-DHA, extends from about 34 weeks of gestation through 24 months after birth, during which time new connections form at rates up to almost 40,000 synapses/s.

Reduced accretion of Docosahexaenoic acid -DHA in the retina and brain during development results in decreased Electroretinogram responses, decreased performance in behaviour tests of learning, exploratory activity and auditory brainstem evoked potential responses, and changes in dopamine and Serotonin metabolism

Clinical trials have also noted higher growth in preterm infant fed with formula containing arachidonic acid – AA and Docosahexaenoic acid – DHA the fetus and preterm infant are capable of forming Docosahexaenoic acid – DHA from linoleic acid, but this capacity is low, and preformed Docosahexaenoic acid – DHA is much more efficient in supporting the accretion of DHA in developing brain and other organs than its precursor linoleic acid. Plasma fatty acid transport in the fetus is distinctly different from that afterbirth, with a relative enrichment of arachidonic acid – AA and Docosahexaenoic acid – DHA.

Preterm and term newborns fed with a formula supplemented with DHA show more rapid and better development of visual acuity and better psychomotor development than infants fed with a standard formula. We show a more rapid maturation of the absolute wave and interpeak latencies of infants fed with either breast milk or a formula supplemented with DHA compared with infants fed with a standard formula.

According to the study of Makrides et al,1 visual evoked potential acuities of infants who were breast fed or fed LCPUFA supplemented formula were higher than those of infants fed unsupplemented formula, indicating that DHA is an essential nutrient in optimal visual neuronal maturation of term infants. The neurodevelopmental outcome of the healthy term infants who received LCPUFA supplemented formula was better than that of those who did not receive LCPUFA supplementation.

All these findings suggest that both term and preterm infants can benefit with respect to neuronal maturation and neurodevelopmental performance from being fed with LCPUFA supplemented formulas.

DHA concentrations are lower in the cerebral cortex of term and preterm infants fed formula containing no LC-PUFAs compared with infants fed human milk, suggesting that DHA synthesis may be inadequate to meet the infant’s needs during the first months of life

DHA influences the duration of sustained attention and speed of processing in infants.

Better visual acuity has been observed in children aged 4 y who were fed DHA-enriched formula compared with control formula

LC-PUFA–supplemented children were faster and more efficient at processing information. Speed of processing has been identified as an important factor in a wide range of cognitive processes such as reasoning, memory, and problem solving (51), and our findings suggest that dietary preformed LC-PUFAs in the first months of life may have long-term consequences for the development of cognitive function in later childhood.