49) Cognitive enhancement by omega-3 fatty acids from child-hood to old age: Findings from animal and clinical studies

The importance of PUFA in neuronal health and function is suggested by the rigid maintenance of a unique membrane fatty acid composition with high levels of palmitate and the polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), including DHA and arachidonic acid

Brain phospholipids are much more (about 300 times) enriched in DHA than EPA.

DHA (DeMar et al., 2004) are much better retained in the brain, making a case for direct intake of these long chains PUFA rather than their shorter-chained precursors, if one were to ensure more efficient accumulation of these PUFA in the brain.

In cases of liver damage, failure or age-related impairment of liver function, one may need dietary intake of DHA to establish normal levels of DHA in the brain. Furthermore, neuronal membrane n-3 PUFA content may decrease with age and neurodegenerative diseases high levels of DPA (n-6) instead of DHA will lead to cognitive impairment, even though these molecules differ only by a single double bond.

DHA-derived resolvins play an important role in the resolution process of inflammation,which is concerned with specific mechanisms to promote return to homeostasis. DHA appears to be the critical PUFA for cognitive enhancement, at least during development DHA steeply increased prior to the period of synaptogenesis while other fatty acids reached plateau, implying its important role during this critical period of development. Thus, depletion of DHA during these critical periods of brain growth could catastrophically interfere with neurogenesis and synaptogenesis.

DHA was shown to play an important role in myelinogenesis.

Females must provide DHA for the growth of the unusually large brains of
their offspring from maternal fat stored during childhood, so their need for DHA is particularly great increasing doses of DHA and found that appropriate doses (150 or 300 mg/kg/d) significantly improved learning and memory.

50) Long-chain omega-3 fatty acids and the brain: a review of the independent and shared effects of EPA, DPA and DHA

DHA is quantitatively the most important omega-3 PUFA in the brain to partition differently in raft and non-raft domains in membranes (Williams et al., 2012).

DHA had a much greater tendency to accumulate into sphingomyelin/cholesterol- rich lipid rafts than EPA, and therefore had a much greater potential to affect cell signaling by modify the composition of these lipid rafts.

The SPMs are a rapidly expanding class of autacoid molecules involved in the active resolution of inflammation and are produced through COX and LOX pathways (Serhan et al., 2008).
EPA produces E-series resolvins (RvE), whereas DHA produces docosanoid, such as Protectins, D-series resolvins (RvD) and maresins.

Dietary supplementation with 1 g EPA and 0.4 g DHA per day for 4 months significantly increases the formation of 5-oxo-EPA and 7-oxo-DHA (Cipollina et al., 2014), and consistent with the formation of resolvins from DHA

Early studies focused on DHA and found beneficial effects on neurite outgrowth in terms of overall length and complexity of outgrowth.

51) What is the relationship between gestational age and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and arachidonic acid (ARA) levels?

Long chain polyunsaturated FAs (LCPUFAs), including arachidonic acid (ARA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), are important for normal health and development ARA and DHA levels are indeed lower in premature.

Higher maternal intake of DHA (whether from fish or supplements) can influence newborn blood DHA levels.

Both ARA and DHA levels in the first week of life, so that infants born at the lowest GA are at the highest risk of deficiency.  Additional findings suggest that due to impaired biosynthesis, premature infants have the need for preformed LCPUFAs rather than precursor essential Fas that are currently provided.

52) Nutritional Armor in Evolution: Docosahexaenoic Acid as a Determinant of Neural, Evolution and Hominid Brain Development

Oxidative and anti-inflammatory products of DHA with neuroprotective bioactivity (dihydroxy-docosatriene, neuroprotectin D1), which are strongly neuroprotective4,5 including the w-3 resolvins and DHA for the retinoid X receptors8 and will switch on over100 genes involved with brain development.9DHA has also been shown to promote neurite growth and synaptogenesis in embryonic hippocampal neurons.

DHA) is a major constituent of the brain membrane phosphoglycerides and together with AA is essential for brain growth and function the brain first evolved in the sea 500 million years ago using DHA for its signaling structures and our brains today still depend on the same chemistry.Brain lipids are different from the heart lipids and mitochondrial lipids are different from those in the nuclear envelope. There are differences even within the mitochondria.

DHA in the vision and the brain dates across the known range of the present genomic representatives of vertebrate evolution. It is as though DHA is the master of DNA.

This idea offers a quantum mechanical electron transfer explaining precision of function unique to DHA, which becomes dysfunctional if a double bond is missing at either end of the molecule.35, 36 This is an operational example of Darwin’s “Conditions of Existence.” DHA is the only w-3 fatty acid used in neural signaling processes over 600 million years of evolution.

4) Dietary essential fatty acids, long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, and visual resolution acuity in healthy full-term infants: a systematic Review

“Dietary DHA leads to better performance on visually-based tasks in healthy, full-term infants
DHA is efficiently incorporated and selectively retained within retinal photoreceptor outer-segments. DHA may influence retinal membrane dynamics “

“A World Health Organization (WHO) /Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Expert Committee [50] has recommended that the level of DHA present in human milk and the volume of human milk that is usually consumed should be used for determining the levels necessary for optimal structural and functional visual development. Levels of DHA in human milk vary widely between different http://windhampharmacy.com/ geographically and ethnically defined populations.The WHO/FAO Committee also has recommended that: (1) full-term infant formula contains 3.5% fat,of which 0.38% is DHA; and (2) pre-term infant formula contain 4.0% fat, of which 0.60% is DHA”

“The recommended full-term formula concentration is approximately 20 mg DHA/kg bodyweight; the pre-term formula concentration is approximately 40 mg DHA/kg bodyweight.

2) Normal development of brain circuits

Spanning functions from the simplest reflex arc to complex cognitive processes, neural
Circuits have diverse functional roles.
In the cerebral cortex, functional domains such as visual processing, attention,
 memory, and cognitive control rely on the development of distinct yet interconnected sets of anatomically distributed cortical and subcortical regions. The developmental organization of these circuits is a remarkably complex process that is influenced by genetic predispositions, environmental events, and neuroplastic responses to experiential demand that modulates connectivity and communication among neurons, within individual brain regions and circuits, and across neural pathways.

Recent advances in neuroimaging and computational neurobiology, together with traditional investigational approaches such as histological studies and cellular and molecular biology, have been invaluable in improving our understanding of these developmental processes in humans in both health and illness. To contextualize the developmental origins of a wide array of neuropsychiatric illnesses, this review describes the development and maturation of neural circuits from the first synapse through critical periods of vulnerability and opportunity to the emergent capacity for cognitive and behavioral regulation, and finally the dynamic interplay across levels of circuit organization and developmental epochs.

1) Structural growth trajectories and rates of change in the first 3 months of infant brain development.

Abstract

IMPORTANCE:

The very early postnatal period witnesses extraordinary rates of growth, but structural brain development in this period has largely not been explored longitudinally. Such assessment may be key in detecting and treating the earliest signs of neurodevelopmental disorders.

OBJECTIVE:

To assess structural growth trajectories and rates of change in the whole brain and regions of interest in infants during the first 3 months after birth.

RESULTS:

Whole-brain volume at birth was approximately one-third of healthy elderly brain volume, and did not differ significantly between male and female infants (347 388 mm3 and 335 509 mm3, respectively, P = .12). The growth rate was approximately 1%/d, slowing to 0.4%/d by the end of the first 3 months, when the brain reached just more than half of elderly adult brain volume. Overall growth in the first 90 days was 64%.There was a significant age-by-sex effect leading to widening separation in brain sizes with age between male and female infants (with male infants growing faster than females by 200.4 mm3/d, SE = 67.2, P = .003). Longer gestation was associated with larger brain size (2215 mm3/d, SE = 284, P = 4×10-13). The expected brain size of an infant born one week earlier than average was 5% smaller than average; at 90 days it will not have caught up, being 2% smaller than average. The cerebellum grew at the highest rate, more than doubling in 90 days, and the hippocampus grew at the slowest rate, increasing by 47% in 90 days.There was left-right asymmetry in multiple http://www.gulfportpharmacy.com regions of interest, particularly the lateral ventricles where the left was larger than the right by 462 mm3 on average (approximately 5% of lateral ventricular volume at 2 months). We calculated volume-by-age percentile plots for assessing individual development

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE:

Normative trajectories for early postnatal brain structural development can be determined from magnetic resonance imaging and could be used to improve the detection of deviant maturational patterns indicative of neurodevelopmental disorders

5) Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA): An Ancient Nutrient for the Modern Human Brain

“Unlike the photosynthetic cells in algae and higher plants, mammalian cells lack the specific enzymes required for the de novo synthesis of alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), the precursor for all omega-3 fatty acid syntheses. Endogenous synthesis of DHA from ALA in humans is much lower and more limited than previously assumed”

“Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in particular, in an integral role in the evolution of human intelligence.
“An important metabolic role for Docosahexaenoic acid DHA has recently been identified as the precursor for resolvins and Protectins.” Known anti-inflammatory mechanisms for the resolvins include the down-regulation of NF-κB and the removal of neutrophils from inflammatory site. DHA is a potent regulator of NF-κB via multiple mechanisms .DHA itself was shown to directly inhibit NF-κB activation”

“DHA has recently been discovered as the precursor for a newly identified docosanoid called protectin, or neuroprotection when it is found in the central nervous system. Read more about lucky 88 slot machine. Protectins is synthesized by peripheral blood mononuclear cells and CD4 cells in response to oxidative stress and has been http://www.slaterpharmacy.com found in neurons, astrocytes, peripheral blood and lung tissue”.“DHA is effective in the prevention of age-related cognitive decline”

Supplementation of 200 mg Docosahexaenoic acid DHA per day for 3 months was shown to increase serum phospholipids by 50% in vegetarians. It would thus appear that only supplementation with preformed DHA reliably increases tissue DHA”

9) The DIAMOND (DHA Intake and Measurement of Neural Development) Study: a double-masked, randomized controlled clinical trial of the maturation of infant visual acuity as a function of the dietary level of docosahexaenoic acid.

DHA supplementation of infant formula at 0.32% of total fatty acids improves visual acuity. Higher amounts of DHA supplementation were not associated with additional improvement of visual acuity.

DHA is present in high concentrations in the central nervous system (CNS) and accumulates during the third trimester prenatally and the first 2 y postpartum (1–4).

Infants at Dallas who were fed control formula with no DHA had significantly poorer visual acuity than did all groups who received DHA-supplemented formulas
Long-term outcomes of DHA-supplementation of infant formula have documented differences in visual and cognitive function at 18 mo to 4 y of age

3) Docosahexaenoic acid promotes hippocampal Neuronal development  and synaptic function

Abstract

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6n-3), the major polyunsaturated fatty acid accumulated in the brain during development, has been implicated in learning and memory, but underlying cellular mechanisms are not clearly understood. Here, we demonstrate that DHA significantly affects hippocampal neuronal development and synaptic function indeveloping hippocampi.

In embryonic neuronal cultures, DHA supplementation uniquely promoted neurite growth, synapsin puncta formation and synaptic protein expression, particularly synapsins and glutamate receptors. In DHA-supplemented neurons, spontaneous http://www.rustburgpharmacy.com synaptic activity was significantly increased, mostly because of enhanced glutamatergic synaptic activity.

Conversely, hippocampal neurons from DHA-depleted fetuses showed inhibited neurite growth and synaptogenesis. Furthermore, n-3 fatty acid deprivation during development resulted in marked decreases of synapsins and glutamate receptor subunits in the hippocampi of 18-day-old pups with concomitant impairment of long-term potentiation, a cellular mechanism underlying learning and memory

While levels of synapsins and NMDA receptor subunit NR2A were decreased in most hippocampal regions, NR2A expression was particularly reduced in CA3, suggesting possible role of DHA in CA3-NMDA receptor-dependent learning and memory processes.

The DHA-induced neurite growth, synaptogenesis, synapsin, and glutamate receptor expression, and glutamatergic synaptic function may represent important cellular aspects supporting the hippocampus-related cognitive function improved by DHA.

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